Volume 4 (2013 ) Issue 2
pp. 133-137
Melinda
Whong: Language
teaching – Linguistic Theory in Practice.
Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press 2011.
213 pages (ISBN
978 0 7486 3635 8)
The
present textbook is divided into eight chapters that again can
again be subdivided
into three larger segments, comprising a discussion of what language
actually is, of what possible definitions and understandings of
language mean for language teaching and, finally, of how to manage
the transfer of theoretical findings into practical classroom
situations. At the end, there is a useful glossary (181) that helps
keep track of the many approaches and developments that follow.
Chapter
1 (“Introduction”; 1-22)
gives the reader either a reminder or a general overview of the
different strands which exist in linguistic theory to understand and
define what language actually is. As is shown in the course of the
book, this has been and still remains one of the major issues with
views to the development of language teaching.
The
author asks the reader - supposedly a language teacher - to consider
this question for him or herself and find the link to language
acquisition.
From functional
and structural linguistics to the internal and external aspects of
psycholinguistic and sociolinguistic approaches, for instance, she
briefly explains the points of view and issues linked to these
theories. Language development in first and second or foreign
language acquisition is a further element which the author focuses on
the introduction. All this is to show the interdisciplinary link
between these theoretical approaches and other scientific areas with
a special focus on education.
After
briefly presenting the multitude of scientific attempts to explain
the concepts of language and language development, the author places
some questions and instructions “for discussion” (21). This
segment will be evoked again at the end of each chapter to remind the
reader / teacher of what has been said and to provide him or her with
a tool to immediately be able to check upon existing classroom habits
and possibly find a guideline for the future. From the beginning, the
author encourages the reader to find for him or herself the right
answer to the question of which aspects of language he or she wants
or needs to teach, and thereby bridges the supposed gap between
language teaching in theory and practice.
Chapter
2 (“Historical Overview – Language and lLanguage Teaching";
23-40) provides a historical outline of the link between the
understanding of language and language teaching (23). In this
context, the changes in different educational systems over the
centuries play an important role. The author indicates the importance
of socio-cultural aspects as well as the historical understanding of
language, beginning with the use of Latin as a tool “to study the
classics of Ancient Rome” (24) and especially “for recording
knowledge in theology, medicine and law” (24).
She then explains the
shift from Latin to vernaculars as nations were growing and their
respective languages gained in importance, e.g. in trade (25-26).
She
discusses the fact that at times, changes in language teaching
theories were far too drastic for their respective times, and that
this phenomenon laid the foundations for modern approaches in theory
and practice (31).
Explaining
early approaches from the grammar-translation method to the
direct method of the Reform Movement, the author introduces
the reader to Chomsky’s efforts and merits (29), again giving an
informative overview, using examples to show the need for new
approaches in linguistics which would have considerable influence on
language teaching theories.
Chapter
3 (“Language as a Biological Property"; 41-67)
deals with Chomsky’s generative theory with views to
Universal Grammar (UG) and its possible influence on Second Language
development (41f). Insight is given into the complicated situation
which research faces at times; many contradictory findings are
briefly and followed by a recommendation to pick out and focus on the
most important issues for teachers:
As you can see, this kind of argumentation is complex, requiring cross-linguistic study and a sophisticated understanding of formal properties of linguistics. Ideally, teachers will be able to study enough linguistics to make sense of this kind of research. […] At the very last, it is important that you as a teacher are aware of the overall conclusions, […] (55).
Another
necessary and useful remark with respect to this is to be found
earlier in the text. As the explanations seem to become more and more
complex, the author states that
another hurdle for teachers to overcome is the abstract nature of linguistic formalisms. While the discussions of Generative Linguistics in this book so far have hopefully been clear, you will probably agree that they are relatively complex. (50).
At
this point, a few more definite examples would probably have helped
teachers with a non-linguistic background understand the complexity
of the concepts described.
Chapter
4 (“Language as a Tool for Communication”; 68-94) concludes with
describing a framework concept that links all of the approaches and
their results discussed in this part of the book, which will then
make it possible for the reader / teacher to understand their link
with practical language teaching.
The
author briefly introduces the topic of this chapter by referring to
“an overview of the major approaches, categorized here under the
[…] labels of Functional, Socio-cultural and Cognitive Approaches.”
(68). She then describes the extent “the notion of competence”
(70ff.) takes in explaining what language is.
In
an attempt to visualize and make the aforementioned categories
clearer, figure 4.1 (87) provides the reader with a useful reminder
of the complex links between the different linguistic approaches
elaborated so far. It leads over to the “consensus-based approach
[…] taken in the next section and the rest of this book as to make
sense of (all) principles of linguistics in the context of language
learning and language teaching” (87). The Modular On-line Growth
and Use of Language (MOGUL) framework is introduced.
In
this chapter, the author also gives clear instructions to teachers of
how to create an environment that encourages the integration of the
three approaches into their work by understanding what has been
stated so far as defining language (91)
The
section For Discussion (92) of Chapter 4 raises the reader’s
awareness in rather theoretical linguistic terms of what teachers
probably know already. This might sound just as complex and
complicated as some of the descriptions read up to this point.
However, the aim of the book as suggested by the title is
well-elaborated and achieved here.
At
the beginning of Chapter 5 (“Implications for Language Teaching”;
95-120), the author states that although in theoretical linguistics
the different views described before are mainly “irreconcilable,
the fortunate point for us is that it does not necessarily matter for
language teaching” (95). She then explains the teachers’ aims in
the classroom from her point of view, stating that “a conscientious
teacher will recognize all of these facets of language [described]
and work to develop them depending on the particular needs of the
students” (96).
Before
concluding with a statement that picks up the remark quoted before,
the author uses the ten observations by Van Patten and Williams
(96-117)
briefly introduced in Chapter 3 (63) to more explicitly
demonstrate the “implications for language teaching” - as
suggested by the title of this chapter - of the manifold and mostly
irreconcilable approaches in theory. The author reaches the
conclusion that “knowledgeable teachers need to take on the
complexity of language and language development (117). She identifies
the existence of such complexity as one of the two most important
findings from projecting the observations onto the possible
experiences of teachers in classroom situations. To specify these
reflexions, she then invites the reader to compare and possibly add
to these generalizations on second language development in the
discussion segment (118). This seems to be most necessary as she
points out that “the implications presented here are logical
conclusions; not all are empirically based” (117).
As
she will then turn to current trends in and findings of English
language teaching in chapter 6, this remark, together with the shift
to a very specific example and description of teaching experiences,
seems to be the general turning point in the book at which teachers
are given the opportunity to further compare and take out the most
important implications for themselves and their work, as suggested
several times by the author as being the right way in language
teaching.
Chapter
6 (“Approaches to English Language Teaching”; 121-141) first
establishes the terminological difference between the terms approach
and method as this will be a necessary distinction for
understanding much of the last chapters of the book (121-122). Again
she shows the reader the importance of awareness of theoretical
issues to be transferred to classroom situations (122). The author
then labels several historically and regionally
developed ideas in English language teaching “designer
approaches” (123) depicting different hypotheses that bring in the
respective roles of a teacher (124ff.). She lists several tendencies
and their respective “inventors” as developed over decades in
English language teaching, recognizing again, however, that in any
case it is of vital significance to be aware of
“what language is, how [it] develops and what best fosters
this development” (128-129).
As
not every possible classroom scenario can be calculated and therefore
covered by one specific approach in terms of making theory
“foolproof” (129) in practice, she turns to Communicative
Language Teaching (CLT) that she identifies as the prevailing
approach in recent times (129). This seems to enable theorists and
teachers alike to reconcile the presumably irreconcilable, taking
into consideration many factors that account for the differences in
theoretical approaches. In addition the author shows that one
important characteristic of this approach is the fact that it “is
likely to make use of all four skills” whereas “the more
traditional practice of teaching each skill separately does not sit
well with an approach which mimics real-life interaction” (132).
She carries on by saying that “CLT is an approach to teaching, not
a method. It embodies a range of beliefs and understandings about
language; language development and learning in general that have
developed over time” (134). With this, she encourages the reader to
conscientiously decide on the methods appropriate in and for a
specific teaching environment.
The
author suggests the method of TBLT (Task-Based Learning and Teaching
(135) that seems to be adequate in the framework of communicative
language teaching as “the importance of communication is clearly
central to Task-Based Learning" (137) and at the same time is
flexible enough to help adapt to many different teaching situations.
In the remainder of the book she will continue to use this method
with some precise examples.
The
discussion section at the end of Chapter 6 invites the reader to
search any textbook at hand and check for the “elements of the
approaches and methods identified” (139) as a transition to Chapter
7 in which the author will not try “to propose any new
super-method” (162), but instead explicitly depict the main aim of
the book with setting up a lesson plan and “[uncovering] some of
the theoretical points which are foundational to sound
language-teaching practices” (162).
Chapter
7 (“Putting Theory into Practice”; 142-163) emphasizes again that
“there is no such thing as a 'typical' language-teaching context”
(142). By summarizing an exemplary scenario featuring class size, the
CEFR level of students and other relevant factors (144), the author
develops an exemplary lesson plan and syllabus, referring back to the
form/function principle (145) in teaching and looking at the
appropriations and necessities to adapt the plan to each environment,
starting, however, from a “simple standard format appropriate for
most teaching contexts” (147) and with which teachers and students
can build upon the knowledge acquired over time.
From
their own experience, teachers will agree that the flexibility of
one’s teaching plan is key to success when adapting it from lesson
to lesson, from classroom situation to classroom situation, being
fully aware of students’ needs.
With regard to this aspect, the book renders a good framework for
rather inexperienced teachers who are just starting their career.
With respect to experienced language teachers, it serves as a mirror
that helps reflect what a teacher presumably knows when having a
linguistic rather than a merely pedagogical background. It
reflects what the reader / teacher might rather have been unaware of,
even though setting up and using lesson plans like the one suggested
in this chapter.
One
major point that the author keeps focusing on is that there is no
approach, and with it no method, that could be considered most
adequate for language teaching in general; taking this thought one
step further, this may also mean that there is
not even the one
approach or method for a specific, but ever changing classroom
environment.
The
aim of the book to show that the lack of the one and best strategy
for any teaching environment is fully accomplished by constantly
showing the variety of issues in questions in each chapter and topic.
The help for structuring one’s teaching with an awareness for
possible underlying theoretical aspects that is provided is very
practical, especially as the author states that
in many language-teaching contexts, there is real pressure to teach specific forms. […] Even in places where there is a degree of freedom for teachers to choose their own classroom materials, the formal assessments for very many courses are, in fact, very 'form-centric' (152),
which
will, of course, restrict teachers in their freedom to decide what,
from a student’s perspective, is needed in the classroom situation.
In the last part of this chapter, this point is dealt with under the
subheading of “deciding what to teach (and what not to teach)”
(161). The author will pick up this statement again in the last
chapter (166), apparently recognizing this assumption as a key
problem to be taken into account by teachers.
As
summarized in the lesson plan, the assumed classroom situation
focused on a specific group of learners that cannot cover all of the
aspects involved, such as “differences in age of acquisition”
(162) or “in levels of proficiency” (163). In a more general
view, this is taken up in the following last chapter of the textbook.
For
this purpose Chapter 8 (“Practice and Practices –
Responding to Student Needs”; 164-180) is divided into segments
giving an overview of the needs of learner groups that differ from
the one described in the previous chapter. The author observes groups
of low- and advanced-level adult learners and young learners of
English. The unit and lesson topic used in chapter 7, however, are
kept.
Under
the subheading “The Global Context: English as a Lingua Franca”
(174), the author briefly explains her turn to exclusively writing
about teaching English in the last two chapters of the book, although
most of it applies to and is “relevant
to the teaching of any language” (174). To conclude, she picks up
another of the major issues discussed throughout the book – what
language actually is –, by focusing on what English is in the
aforementioned global context (174ff.).
Summing
up by admitting that “in many ways this book raises more questions
than it answers” (178), the author invites and encourages the
reader / teacher to be aware “of the complexity of [the] subject
area: language” (178). She finishes the final discussion section
with the following:
What do you consider the most important points made in this book? To what extent will they affect your views on teaching? What, specifically, could you plan to do differently as a teacher that you did not do before (as a language teacher or learner)? (179).
This
very last notion of allowing teachers to see themselves not only as
language teachers, but also as language learners, is a good final
hint to create the awareness the author considers key to success.
Reviewer:
Christine Mathews
Hochschule
für Technik und Wirtschaft des Saarlandes
University
of Applied Sciences
Fakultät
für Wirtschaftswissenschaten / Business School
Waldhausweg
14
66123
Saarbrücken
Germany
E-mail:
christine.mathews@htwsaar.de