Journal of Linguistics and Language Teaching (JLLT)

Journal of Linguistics and Language Teaching

Volume 15 (2024) Issue 1

pp. 13-32

Muscle Memory and the Development of Speaking Skills: Unveiling Neuromotor Foundations and Methodological  Approaches in Foreign Language Education

Heiner Böttger & Bianca Höppner (Eichstätt-Ingolstadt, Germany)

Abstract (English)

The development of speaking skills, whether in a native or a foreign language, remains a complex field of study that combines neurobiology, psychology, language methodology and linguistics. This article focuses on a less studied component of language or speaking skills called muscle memory. It sheds light on its roots – the main muscles and brain areas involved – as well as its role in verbal communication, articulation, and language acquisition in general. It further outlines a holistic methodological approach to (foreign) language and speaking training that offers practical implementation options to improve muscle memory and, with it, accurate pronunciation and fluency. With these two focal points – theoretic background alongside practical considerations –, the article attempts not only to provide a more comprehensive understanding of the influence of muscle memory on the development of speaking skills, but also aims to bridge the gap between neuromotor processes and methodological practices.

Keywords: Muscle memory, speaking skills, neuromotor foundations, methodological approaches, foreign language teaching and acquisition

Abstract (German)

Die Entwicklung der Sprechfertigkeit – sei es in der Muttersprache oder in einer Fremdsprache – ist nach wie vor ein komplexes Forschungsgebiet, das Neurobiologie, Psychologie, Fremdsprachendidaktik und Linguistik miteinander verbindet. Der vorliegende Artikel hat eine wenig erforschte Komponente des Sprechens bzw. der Sprachbeherrschung zum Gegenstand, das sogenannte muscle memory (dt. ‚Muskelgedächtnis‘). Es werden  seine Wurzeln – die beteiligten Muskeln und Hirnareale – beleuchtet sowie seine Rolle bei der verbalen Kommunikation, der Artikulation und dem Spracherwerb im Allgemeinen. Darüber hinaus wird ein ganzheitlicher didaktischer Ansatz für das (Fremd-)Sprachentraining bzw. das Sprechtraining skizziert, der praktische Umsetzungsmöglichkeiten zur Verbesserung des Muskelgedächtnisses und damit der korrekten Aussprache und des flüssigen Sprechens bietet. Mit diesen beiden Schwerpunkten, dem theoretischen Hintergrund und den praktischen Überlegungen, versuchen wir nicht nur ein umfassenderes Verständnis des Einflusses des Muskelgedächtnisses auf die Entwicklung der Sprechfertigkeiten zu vermitteln, sondern auch eine Brücke zwischen neuromotorischen Prozessen und (Fremdsprachen)didaktischer Praxis zu schlagen.

Stichwörter: Muskelgedächtnis, Sprechfertigkeit, neuromotorische Grundlagen, methodische Ansätze, Fremdsprachenlehre, Fremdsprachenerwerb

1   Introduction

Language acquisition, whether in the mother tongue or in a foreign language, remains a complex subject of study across several scientific disciplines, converging the fields of neurobiology, psychology, and linguistics. Yet, what underpins fluency and skills in speech production is less conspicuously explored – a major component of which is muscle memory. It offers a fascinating glimpse into the complexities of verbal communication. Muscle memory, or motor memory, is postulated to apply not only to physical activities, but significantly also to the refinement and proficiency in spoken language. It demarcates the proficiency with which we produce sounds, words, and sentences, that result from repetitive practice and the gradual assimilation of muscular coordination in our unconscious procedural memory (Figure 1; Johnstone 2017):

Figure 1: Types of Long-term Memory

Navigating through the varied linguistic competencies, from the articulation of phonemes to the rhythm and intonation of phrases, this paper takes a closer look  at muscle memory and its imperative role in speech and language acquisition. By synthesising insights from different research perspectives, we seek to unravel the mechanisms by which muscle memory substantiates our ability to learn and articulate language effectively, providing a new lens through which the intricacies of spoken language can be understood and studied.

1.1 Definition of Muscle Memory and its Relevance to the Development of Speaking Skills

Muscle memory is a form of procedural memory that involves the consolidation of a specific motortask in memory through repetition. Unlike motor learning, which is often used synonymously, it does not encompass the process of establishing these neural connections in the first place, but rather refers to the existing connections that are generated and strengthened through practice. In addition, when a movement is repeated over time, a long-term muscle memory is created for that task, allowing it to eventually be performed without conscious effort (Brashers-Krug et al. 1996). This phenomenon is critical in a multitude of learning domains, including the acquisition and development of speaking skills.

The act of speaking is a complex motor skill that requires complex coordination between different muscle groups in the vocal tract, including the laryngeal, velopharyngeal, and articulatory muscles. The precise control and coordination of these muscles is critical to producing intelligible speech and achieving fluent verbal communication. Muscle memory plays a central role in automating these motor processes that are involved in speech production. Through consistent practice and repetition, learners can consolidate the neuromotor patterns associated with the articulatory movements required for speech (Tremblay et al. 2003). Over time, this leads to improved fluency and accuracy in speech production as, due to automation, the required motor sequences require less conscious effort to execute.

In addition, the relevance of muscle memory extends to the methodological domain, particularly in language education, where the focus is on developing speaking skills. Methodological strategies that incorporate kinesthetic and motor activities can considerably assist learners in developing the muscle memory necessary for proficient, near-native speech production. More specifically, exercises that emphasise repetition, feedback, and deliberate practice can help learners internalise the motor patterns necessary for accurate and fluent speech. Another area of application in language learning and teaching is that educators can use the principles of muscle memory to design instructional interventions that promote speaking skills. For example, articulation drills, phonetic exercises, and interactive speaking activities can provide the repetitive practice necessary to foster muscle memory and thereby improve speaking skills (Zielinski 2008).

In conclusion, the concept of muscle memory is intrinsically linked to the development of speaking skills, offering a valuable lens through which educators and language practitioners can understand and facilitate the motor learning required for proficient speech production.

1.2 The Importance of Exploring Muscle Memory within the Context of Language Education

From a modern, holistic methodological perspective, there is no alternative to taking muscle memory into account when learning a foreign language. The main reasons are:

1. Muscle memory plays a vital role in the ability to produce sounds accurately in a new language. Regular practice in pronouncing specific sounds, words, and phrases helps learners develop the muscle patterns necessary for fluency (Hancock 2018).

2. As learners develop muscle memory for the sounds and rhythms of a new language, their speech becomes more fluent and natural. This fluency is critical not only for effective communication but also for building confidence in using the language in real-life situations (Böttger 2024).

3. As the production of speech sounds becomes automatic through muscle memory, learners can devote more cognitive resources to other aspects of communication, such as vocabulary, grammar, and content. This shift allows for a more complex and nuanced use of the language (Kearney & Guenther 2019).

4. For learners aiming to reduce their accent in a foreign language, developing muscle memory for native-like pronunciation can be essential. This often involves retraining the muscles to produce sounds that may not exist in the learners’ native language (Baese-Berk et al. 2013).

5. Muscle memory contributes to the long-term retention of language skills. As with playing a musical instrument or a sport, regular practice embeds these skills more deeply, making them more resistant to decay over time (Krakauer & Shadmehr 2006).

6. Understanding the role of muscle memory in language acquisition can lead to more personalised teaching strategies that address learners’ individual needs and challenges, especially in the area of pronunciation (Knoll 2017).

7. For young students undergoing speech therapy, such as those dealing with speech impediments, the concept of muscle memory is critical to relearning how to speak at all (Craig & Cleary 1982).

1.3 Aim and Scope

This paper aims to explore the role of muscle memory in the development of speaking skills, bridging the gap between neuromotor processes and methodological practices to foster enhanced language education outcomes. The structure of the paper is designed to provide a comprehensive understanding of the impact of muscle memory on the development of speaking skills, grounded in both theoretical frameworks and practical teaching strategies. Through this exploration, the paper seeks to contribute to the broader discourse on the integration of educational neuroscience insights into language methodology, particularly in the area of foreign language speaking skill enhancement; therefore, the examples chosen are from the field of English as a Foreign Language (EFL). English as an exemplary language was selected due to its global relevance and the high likelihood of it being well known by readers. Nonetheless, the insights depicted are transferable to other languages.

2   Literature Review

Although muscle memory has been extensively studied in various sport disciplines (Eftestøl et al. 2020, Sharples & Turner 2023, Snijders et al. 2002), there are relatively few studies available on its relationship and impact on speaking skills. This seems unjustified, given the similarities between the two domains. For example, just as athletes train complex movements by practising their partial movements first,  language learners can practise and automatise the pronunciation of speech sounds first before assembling them into more complex movement sequences like words or phrases. Nonetheless, there are a number of important findings that shed some light on how muscle memory is interlinked with language and speaking in particular, a selection of which is presented here. 

The first step in learning to produce sounds or groups of sounds at will, as well as improving pronunciation skills in general, is to repeat the respective sound sequences regularly in order to build up a kinesthetic memory (Khakim 2015). The reason for this is that repeating motor tasks strengthens the corresponding neural pathways, which results not only in more efficient motor control, but also in better performance over time (Shadmehr & Brashers-Krug 1997). Thus, when the motor sequences required for articulated speech are consistently practised, they become automated, allowing language learners to produce speech with greater accuracy and less cognitive effort (Max et al. 2004). In addition, individuals can also refine their motor control through repetitive practice, which will lead to improvements in phonetic accuracy over time (Guenther 2016). Thereby, it does not seem to matter whether students train their pronunciation abilities by simply repeating words or phrases or by using tongue twisters instead. That is, the latter training approach may be more suitable for motivational purposes but has been found to be similarly effective for purposes of correct pronunciation (Muin et al. 2017). 

The fact that many language speakers report being error-free and fluent in a foreign language when thinking, but at the same time still make pronunciation errors or need to pause when speaking aloud, underscores the importance of speaking to build up muscle memory and automate pronunciation processes. Moreover, studies that investigate whether students’ speaking fluency develops as a result of regular speaking exercises (e.g. group discussions, voice recordings) provide evidence not only that students become better speakers, but also that they become more aware of their own mistakes. For example, Lopez et al. (2021) used a pre-and post-test design to measure the development of 24 students’ speaking fluency during a six-week action-research study by examining the speed, pauses, repetitions, and corrections of their audiotaped recordings. They found that their average speaking speed increased, while the average number of corrections and pauses decreased. However, regular training is not only important for developing fluency and speaking skills, but also for maintaining them. Language attrition, which refers to the loss of one’s first language, is perhaps the most extreme and known example. It underlines the essence of the saying, ‘if you don’t use it, you’ll lose it’. 

In addition, semantic memory has been indicated to be not only functionally and neuroanatomically intertwined with the sensory system but also with the motor system (Kiefer 2008). This suggests that word meanings, which are considered part of the semantic memory, are interlinked with its sensory and motor representations. The latter ones, thereby, are likely to include representations of pronunciation features needed for error-free articulation – an important component of the muscle memory needed for speech production. Moreover, Kiefer et al. (2007) give evidence that conceptual representations also reflect (motor) experiences that were part of the learning process, such as the respective mood state. For example, if students learn the English expression thumb up and make the corresponding hand gesture while saying the phrase aloud, their mental representation of this sequence is likely to include this specific hand movement alongside the positive or negative state of mind they were in. Interestingly, this not only suggests that speaking and pronunciation exercises are important to connect the meaning of words or phrases in a given language with articulatory features, but also form the basis for more complex exercises like Voice Movement Icons (VMI). This task format pairs speaking or reading-aloud practices with actions or gestures more generally and has been found to be beneficial for foreign language learning  (see the compilation provided by Macedonia 2004). In essence, it allows the practice and automation of the phonological, morphological and syntactic structures of languages, as the combination of semantic and motor structures facilitates the storage of this information in different areas of the brain, making it easier to recall later. As the findings from Gröning (2011) underline, the use of gestures regularly correlates with an easier excitability of the motor cortex.  

3   Theoretical Framework

3.1 Muscles Involved in the Speech Process

Many muscles are involved in the speech process, both in the motor cortex and in other parts of the body. It is difficult to determine the exact number of muscles in the head area involved in speaking English because the muscles are closely connected and work in combination to produce different sounds. The exact mechanism and involvement of the muscles can vary depending on the articulation of the sounds, the language, and individual differences. Here are some of the main muscles involved in the oral speech process that can be easily identified by their location and basic function:

Figure 2: Face Muscles Ensuring Speech Production (1)

Speaking English mainly involves muscles in the head. Several muscles around the lips are responsible for articulating sounds. These include – amongst many others (Figure 2) – the orbicularis oris muscle, which contracts the lips, and the levator labii superioris muscle, and the inferior depressor labii muscle, which move the upper and lower lip. The buccinator muscle contracts the cheeks. Together, these muscles enable opening, closing, rounding and protruding the lips. They are important for producing labial sounds such as /p/, /b/, /m/, and /w/:

Figure 3: Main Muscles for Tongue Movement (2)

The tongue also plays a crucial role in the production of many sounds in English (Figure 3). There exist a number of muscles that are responsible for moving and positioning the tongue, including the genioglossus muscle, which is responsible for moving the tongue back and forth, and the styloglossus muscle, which is responsible for lifting the back parts of the tongue. When combined, they allow the tongue to be raised, lowered, moved forward, backward, and laterally when articulating consonants such as /t/, /d/, /s/, /z/, /l/, /r/, and many others. 

The muscles of the palate, such as the levator veli palatini muscle and the uvulae muscle, are responsible for raising and lowering the palate. They form the hard and soft palate and help control airflow and resonance while speaking. The soft palate can be raised or lowered to control airflow through the nose and mouth. The palatal muscles are important for articulating sounds such as /k/, /ɡ/ and /ŋ/. The muscles of the temporomandibular joint, such as the masseter muscle (Figure 2) and the temporal muscle, are responsible for the movement of the lower jaw (e.g. opening, closing) and thus, for the articulation of sounds such as /t/, /d/, /j/ and /r/. The muscles of the larynx play a central role in voice generation, more specifically in the production of vocal sound and pitch. These include the vocal cord muscle, musculus vocalis, and the cricothyroideus muscle. They allow the tension and positioning of the vocal cords to produce different pitches and vocal qualities.

Special trunk or core muscles are also involved, far away from the head or face. The diaphragm is the most important respiratory muscle and plays a crucial role in creating the airflow for speech. The abdominal muscles, including the straight and oblique abdominal muscles, support the function of the diaphragm in controlling the flow of air during speech. These muscles are located between the ribs and also help control breathing while speaking. Together, these respiratory muscles form the basis for pulmonic egressive sounds (all sounds in English), which require exhalation to produce meaningful speech sounds in addition to the articulatory muscles described above.  

In all, speech production is a highly complex motor task that involves more than 100 muscles in the orofacial, laryngeal, pharyngeal, and respiratory systems. The precise and rapid coordination of these muscles and the production of temporally complex speech sounds​ require “long exposure and regular use” (Böttger 2020: 37). 

3.2 Brain Areas Responsible for Planning, Executing/Controlling or Reflecting on Speech

The network of brain regions responsible for language and speech is often referred to as the language network or language processing network. It typically includes two main pathways, also known as the dual loop (Hickok & Poeppel 2007): the dorsal pathway and the ventral pathway. The dorsal pathway connects the Broca’s area with the Wernicke’s area via the fasciculus arcuatus. This pathway is involved in the processing of phonological and syntactic aspects of language and in the connection between language comprehension and the motor aspects of speech. The ventral pathway connects the Wernicke’s area to the anterior temporal lobe and other frontal areas. It is involved in the processing of word meanings and semantic aspects of language (Böttger 2023: 126 for details).

Research refers to different models and theories of the functional organisation of the language network, such as the more traditional Wernicke-Lichtheim-Geschwind Model, which provides an early basis for understanding language processing in the brain, and more recent models based on advances in neuroscience and neuroimaging technologies (Hagoort 2013). Research in this field remains active, and different perspectives and models regarding the specific functions and interactions within this network continue to be explored.

The coordinated interaction in the network for planning, executing, and reflecting on the speech act involves numerous individual brain areas that complement each other in close interaction. Only in this way can language emerge. The most important key areas (Figure 4) are:

1. the Broca’s area (part of Brodmann’s area 44/45), which plays a crucial role in the planning of the motor aspects of language and grammar and is significantly involved in the production of spoken language,

2. the Wernicke’s area (Brodmann’s area 22), which is central to language comprehension and is connected to Broca's area by the fasciculus arcuatus, a bundle of nerve fibres,

3. the Primary Motor Cortex (Brodmann's area 4), which is crucial for controlling and executing the movements necessary for articulation. Planning and coordination of complex movements, including speech movements, is done by the Supplementary Motor Area (SMA) and the Premotor Cortex,

4. the Auditory Cortex (Brodmann’s area 41/42) as a fundamental basis for the perception and processing of acoustic signals,

5. the Inferior Parietal Lobe (Brodmann’s area 39/40), which is involved in the multimodal integration of sensory and linguistic information,

6. the Anterior Cingulate Cortex (ACC) and Prefrontal Cortex, both of which are active in focusing attention, making word choices, and reflecting on spoken content,

7. the Basal Ganglia and Cerebellum, which are responsible for the timing and coordination of the motor activities required for speech,

8. the Angular and Supramarginal Gyrus, which play a central role in the processing of semantic word meanings and phonological information, and

9. the Insula, the so-called Insular Cortex, which coordinates articulatory movements: 

Figure 4: Key Brain Areas Involved in Language Processing and Production (3)

The number of individual sub-areas outlined above clarifies how complex speech is organised.

3.3 Motor Learning Theory and Speech Acquisition

Motor learning theories, which encompass the processes by which individuals acquire and refine motor skills, provide valuable insights into the development of speaking skills. Speaking is fundamentally a motor task that requires the precise coordination of various muscle groups in the vocal tract. The following discussion examines how motor learning theories elucidate the process of speaking skill development.

The core principle of motor learning theories is the automatisation of motor sequences through consistent practice and repetition (Willingham 1998). This principle is particularly relevant to the development of speaking skills, where the automatisation of articulatory movements leads to improved fluency and accuracy in speech production (Max et al. 2004). Liberman &  Mattingly (1985) proposed that speech perception is fundamentally a motor process, in which individuals perceive spoken words by identifying the intended articulatory gestures rather than the acoustic patterns generated. This theory sheds light on the motor basis of speech perception, which, in turn, has implications for the development of speaking skills. Embodied cognition theories argue that cognition is embedded in actions, suggesting a robust link between motor actions and language comprehension (Glenberg & Kaschak 2002). For example, the mirror neuron system is proposed to underlie the connection between action representation and language, further emphasising the role of motor learning in the development of speaking skills (Rizzolatti & Arbib 1998). Methodological strategies derived from motor learning theories, such as exercises that emphasise repetition, feedback, and deliberate practice, can significantly aid in the development of speaking skills (Ericsson et al. 1993). These strategies facilitate the consolidation of neuromotor patterns necessary for accurate and fluent speech production. The developmental pathways of language and motor skills exhibit rapid changes, plateaus, and a wide variability, making it difficult to disentangle their associations (Iverson 2010). However, recognising the interconnectedness of these domains can inform instructional practices aimed at enhancing speaking skills (Zambrana et al. 2014).  Neurological studies highlight the long-lasting neuronal changes associated with motor learning and the formation of motor memories that are fundamental to understanding and facilitating the process of speaking skill development (Shadmehr & Holcomb 1997).

4 Methodological Implications

The acquisition of proficient speaking skills is a multifaceted endeavour that requires the harmonisation of cognitive, neuromotor, and affective domains. An essential facet of speaking skill development is the cultivation of muscle memory, which is fundamental to articulation and fluency. This chapter elucidates the methodological implications surrounding the holistic fostering of muscle memory in speaking skill development, with an emphasis on kinesthetic activities and motor exercises, as well as the role of repetition, feedback, and deliberate practice

4.1 Kinesthetic Activities and Motor Exercises Enhancing Articulation and Fluency

Kinesthetic activities and motor exercises play a key role in improving articulation and fluency in language learners. These activities forge physical connections between a concept and a tangible action, which, when repeated, promote the development of muscle memory for specific skills​ (BJU Blog 2023)​. Engaging learners in activities that require physical articulation of phonemes, words, and sentences can significantly enhance their articulatory precision and fluency. For example, tongue twisters, phonetic drills, and role-playing activities can provide learners with opportunities to practise and refine the motor skills required for articulate speech. Moreover, the incorporation of motor exercises such as facial muscle and articulatory organ exercises can further reinforce muscle memory, thereby promoting enhanced articulation and fluency.

4.2 Repetition, Feedback, and Deliberate Practice Consolidating Muscle Memory for Speaking Skills

The consolidation of muscle memory for speaking skills is significantly influenced by repetition, feedback, and deliberate practice. 

Repetition of articulatory movements and speech exercises facilitates the strengthening of neuromotor pathways, which is essential for the automation of speaking skills. 

Feedback, both self-generated and externally provided, is crucial for identifying areas of improvement and facilitating the refinement of articulatory movements. 

Deliberate practice, characterised by goal-oriented and focused repetition of speech exercises, is instrumental in fostering muscle memory (Pinzo et al. 2017). 

Integrating these elements into the pedagogical framework can significantly accelerate the acquisition and consolidation of muscle memory for speaking skills​.

5    Practical Examples

5.1 Examination of Successful Methodological Interventions Focusing on Muscle Memory to Improve Speaking Skills

Developing speaking skills through muscle memory involves a fusion of methodological strategies aimed at enhancing learners' motor and cognitive processes. While explicit resources directly linking muscle memory, methodological interventions, and speaking skill improvement might be scarce, various teaching techniques and learning strategies can be inferred to contribute to this objective. Below is a narrative synthesis structured around the key themes from the collected snippets.

5.1.1 Systematic Approach to Speaking Skills

Employing a systematic approach to teaching speaking skills can foster mastery, reduce language anxiety, and create a conducive learning environment. Although not explicitly mentioned, a systematic approach could include repetitive practice, which is central to the development of muscle memory​ (Askland et al. 2022).

5.1.2 Knowledge of Muscle Memory in Learning

Knowledge of muscle memory plays an important role in learning and efficient task performance. Hence, students should be educated about the impact that muscle memory plays for enhancing their speaking skills as well as about exercises on how to best train it. In educational contexts, muscle memory is often harnessed to facilitate the retention and automatic retrieval of learned material or skills​ (Richards 2001).

5.1.3 Immersive Learning Techniques

Learning techniques in which students are immersed in a linguistic environment foster the improvement of speaking, listening, reading, and writing skills. Through this full engagement, learners develop a motor-cognitive synchronisation that aids in the seamless articulation of speech, analogous to muscle memory​ (Mahdi 2022). Yet, more research is needed in this field.

5.1.4 Kinesthetic Movement

Kinesthetic movement in the classroom has been suggested to build muscle memory, improving literacy skills. Although the discussed context is reading and writing, a parallel can be drawn to speaking skills, where kinesthetic activities might help in internalising phonetic and linguistic structures, thereby facilitating smoother speech delivery​ (Kindervater 2021)

5.1.5 Debate as a Methodological Intervention

Debate is a structured form of oral argumentation, where two or more parties express opposing viewpoints on a specific topic. It is an educational and competitive activity that emphasises critical thinking, effective communication, and research skills. As such, it is recognized as a valuable methodological tool for honing speaking skills By engaging in debates , learners can enhance various aspects of speaking competence. That is, the structured, engaging, and repetitive nature of debating supports language learners to formulate and articulate phrases, without focusing too much on pronunciation. It trains articulation through practice, just as physical repetition strengthens muscle memory for motor tasks, and includes implicit error correction (e.g., interaction partners repeating an incorrectly pronounced word accurately in their response). In contrast to monotonous repetition of words, it improves automaticity in speech production appealingly; it can, hence, potentially contribute to the development of muscle memory (el Majidi et al. 2021)​.

These collected insights hint at the intricate interplay between methodological interventions, muscle memory, and the enhancement of speaking skills. While the direct relationship might require further empirical exploration, the synthesised information provides a pathway to understanding how muscle memory can be harnessed methodologically to bolster speaking skills.

5.2 Evaluation of the Impact of Muscle Memory-focused Methodology on Learners’ Speaking Proficiency

Muscle memory must be considered a fundamental aspect of language learning. It is especially crucial for speaking, i.e., a real-time activity requiring prompt responses to interactions. It also allows for real-time evaluation as students recognize successful or unsuccessful speaking trials immediately: As learners repeatedly practise speaking, they start to internalise the correct forms and structures of the language. This process enables them to instantly recognise when a sentence structure feels right or wrong, based on their previous successful or unsuccessful attempts. This notion suggests that muscle memory could potentially be integral in enhancing speaking proficiency through adequate methodological approaches​.

What follows is an exploration of the impact of muscle memory-focused methodology on learners' speaking proficiency. This outline assimilates insights from a variety of sources, some of which hint at the relevance of muscle memory in language learning and speaking proficiency, although they do not directly evaluate muscle memory-focused methodology.

5.2.1 Cooperative Learning Strategies

Namaziandost et al.’s (2019) study explored the impact of cooperative learning – an instructional strategy where students collaborate on common tasks – on intermediate EFL learners' oral proficiency and motivation. Although not directly labelled as a muscle memory-focused pedagogy, cooperative learning could foster muscle memory through repeated interactive practices, potentially enhancing speaking proficiency​​. That is, as learners work together and practice language skills in a supportive environment, they are likely to experience more meaningful, real-life communication scenarios. This immersive and interactive environment encourages frequent use of the language, contributing to a more natural and automatic use of language structures and vocabulary, thereby improving overall language fluency.

5.2.2 Word-focused Exercise Conditions

A study investigating the effects of word-focused exercise conditions on vocabulary learning suggests that certain exercise types might influence language proficiency. While this study did not specifically address speaking proficiency or muscle memory, word-focused exercises could implicitly contribute to the development of muscle memory, thereby improving speaking skills​ (Teng 2022). In terms of language learning, the repetitive nature of these activities could make an important contribution. More specifically, regularly engaging in exercises that target specific vocabulary consolidates word retrieval processes, making them more automatic. This automaticity is a form of muscle memory in which the brain efficiently encodes and retrieves linguistic information without conscious effort. Over time, this can lead to smoother, more fluent speaking skills as learners are able to access and use vocabulary more easily in conversation.

5.2.3 Pronunciation and Methodological Approaches

Pronunciation, an essential aspect of speaking, is influenced by teachers’ methodological approaches. Addressing pronunciation issues through specific strategies could implicitly involve muscle memory training, improving learners' speaking proficiency over time​ (Pennington & Rogerson-Revell 2019). Shadowing exercises, where learners repeat spoken words or phrases immediately after hearing them, can be particularly effective for this purpose. This method helps in aligning learners' articulatory movements with the correct pronunciation patterns. Tongue twisters and minimal pair drills, which focus on discriminating similar sounds, can also strengthen muscle memory and aid in the accurate production of sounds. Moreover, integrating stress and intonation pattern exercises helps learners grasp the rhythm of the language, contributing to more natural and fluent speech.

6   Discussion

The exploration of muscle memory in the domain of speech training unveils a multitude of potential benefits and challenges that are worth looking into for educators and researchers alike. Muscle memory, often viewed through the lens of motor learning, holds a significant place in language acquisition and speaking proficiency. It is posited that muscle memory plays an important role in language learning, particularly in speaking, which is a real-time activity requiring instantaneous responses​ (Lewis 2013). The essence of muscle memory is further echoed in cooperative learning strategies where repetitive interactive practices could foster muscle memory, potentially enhancing speaking proficiency​ (Namaziandost et al. 2019)​.

Moreover, the spotlight on word-focused exercises reveals that certain types of exercises might contribute to the development of muscle memory, thereby improving speaking skills​ (Teng 2022)​. Addressing pronunciation issues through specific methodological strategies could implicitly involve muscle memory training, improving learners' speaking proficiency over time​ (Pennington & Rogerson-Revell 2019)​. The discussion around speech-motor learning unveils that it necessitates not only the learning of a new motor plan but also a complementary perceptual-linguistic representation, hinting at the intertwined nature of muscle memory and linguistic proficiency ​(van Zelst et al. 2021)​.

Articulation therapy provides a window into understanding that speech, like every learned procedural memory, is based on muscle memory, with articulators working together to perfect speech sounds. As correct sounds are consistently made, muscle memory takes over, easing their production​​. Of particular note here is the nuanced discussion on muscle memory in speech production between Brené Brown, known for her research on vulnerability and leadership, and neuroscientist David Eagleman, who specialises in the brain’s perceptual processes: it highlights the complex interplay between the brain, learning, and emotional processes in developing language proficiency. It also explores how our emotional resilience and neurological functions are intertwined, providing a deeper understanding of language learning and speaking skills from both psychological and scientific perspectives. In short, by combining expert insights from neuroscience and human behaviour, this discussion sheds light on the relevance of muscle memory in speech production, hinting at a nuanced understanding required in language methodology (Mason & Eagleman 2020).

Furthermore, it is articulated that repeating a physical action many times can develop a permanent memory, which is crucial for improving pronunciation, an essential aspect of speaking proficiency​ (Vocals on Stage 2017). The concept of muscle memory is often associated with learning new skills and emphasises the importance of daily practice for kinesthetic coordination, a concept that could be harnessed in speech and language methodology.

The potential benefits of focusing on muscle memory might include enhanced automaticity and fluency in speech production and a reduced cognitive load on learners. However, challenges such as an over-reliance on memorisation and the variance in individual motor and cognitive abilities might impact the effectiveness of muscle memory-focused methodology. That is, while these methodologies may be a perfect fit for some learners, others may find it difficult to develop correct pronunciation with these due to, for example, differences in motor skills. This means  that there is no one-size-fits-all approach to language learning, which relies heavily on memorization; instead, adaptive teaching strategies and abilities are needed to accommodate diverse learning styles.

The discourse around muscle memory in speech or language methodology necessitates a deeper empirical investigation. Recommendations for further research could encompass conducting empirical studies to evaluate the effectiveness of muscle memory-focused methodology on different learner groups and fostering interdisciplinary research collaborations between linguists, psychologists, and educators. On the practical front, integrated practical approaches that amalgamate muscle memory training within a holistic methodological framework and targeted teacher training on effective strategies to integrate muscle memory-focused exercises in speech training could be envisaged.

The integration of muscle memory-focused approaches in speech and language methodology, then, presents a promising venture. A nuanced understanding of its benefits and challenges, backed by empirical research, is crucial for realising its potential in enhancing speaking proficiency and designing effective methodological strategies.

7   Conclusion

To synthesise the information explored above, it is evident that muscle memory holds a significant niche in speech or language methodology, potentially serving as a linchpin for enhancing speaking proficiency. The intrinsic role of muscle memory in language learning, particularly in real-time speaking activities, underscores its importance​ (Lewis 2013)​. Methodological strategies like cooperative learning could implicitly foster the development of muscle memory through repetitive interactive practices, hinting at the potential for enhanced speaking proficiency​ (​Namaziandost et al. 2019).

Moreover, the discourse on word-focused exercises, pronunciation training, and articulation therapy accentuates the potential interplay between muscle memory and various aspects of speech production, from pronunciation to fluent articulation​ ​(Teng et al. 2022, ​ Pennington & Rogerson-Revell 201,; van Zelst et al. 2021). The nuance of speech motor learning, as discussed in the context of memory consolidation, further elucidates the intertwined nature of muscle memory and linguistic proficiency, hinting at a complex but promising area for exploration in speech and language methodology. 

The above-mentioned dialogue between Brené Brown and neuroscientist David Eagleman (2020), along with the emphasis on daily practice in vocal training, resonates with the idea that muscle memory, fostered through consistent practice, could be a cornerstone for advancing speaking proficiency​​ (Mason & Eagleman 2020, Marner-Brooks 2017)​. However, the road to harnessing muscle memory in language methodology is not without challenges, such as the risk of over-reliance on memorisation and the variance in individual motor and cognitive abilities.

The comprehensive evaluation of muscle memory in speech pedagogy beckons a multidisciplinary approach, encompassing empirical research and practical applications. It calls for an amalgam of insights from linguists, psychologists, educators, and speech therapists to unravel the full spectrum of benefits and challenges that muscle memory-focused methodology could entail. The promising potential of muscle memory-focused approaches, juxtaposed with the inherent challenges, underscores the need for a nuanced, evidence-backed exploration to design effective methodological strategies that could potentially revolutionise language education and, by extension, improve learners' speaking proficiency.

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Authors:

Dr Heiner Böttger

Professor of English Didactics 

Department of Linguistics and Literature  

Catholic University of Eichstaett-Ingolstadt 

Eichstätt

Germany 

Email: heiner.boettger@ku.de

ORCID iD: 0000-0001-9767-9571

Bianca Höppner, M.A.

Research Assistant and Doctoral Candidate

Department of Linguistics and Literature  

Catholic University of Eichstaett-Ingolstadt 

Eichstätt

Germany

Email: bianca.hoeppner@ku.de

ORCID iD: 0000-0002-3973-9465

__________________

(1) Frauengesicht – oberflächliches Tiefenmuskelschema. Data adapted from iStock (2023) (https://www.istockphoto.com/de/vektor/frauen-gesicht-oberfl%C3%A4chliche-tiefenmuskelschema-vektorillustration-gm1530418768-525101383?phrase=muscle+face; 17-12-2023)

(2) Data adapted from Souza, Peter (2020): Styloglossus Muscle (https://anatomyzone.com/ articles/styloglossus-muscle/; 17-12-2023)

(3) 3d Render of Brain on White Background. Data adapted from Shutterstock (n.d.) (https://www.shutterstock.com/image-illustration/3d-render-brain-on-white-background-104263259; 17-12-2023)