Journal of Linguistics and Language Teaching
Volume 17 (2026) Issue 2
An Overview of Teaching Chinese for Specific Purposes in the UK:
AI Modes and Emerging Trends
Minjie Xing & Amily W. Guenier (University of Manchester, UK)
Abstract (English)
This paper provides an overview of Chinese language education in the United Kingdom, focusing specifically on Chinese for Specific Purposes (CSP). It examines the historical and institutional development of CSP, outlines its core characteristics, and surveys current programme offerings across different educational sectors. The study explores key factors driving the expansion of CSP – such as growing student interest, supportive policy frameworks, and evolving UK-China relations – while also addressing the challenges that hinder broader implementation. Additionally, the paper examines how artificial intelligence (AI) technologies are being integrated into CSP. It highlights AI's potential to enhance domain-specific relevance, learner engagement, and graduate employability, suggesting that AI could play a pivotal role in the future evolution of CSP in the UK and internationally.
Keywords: Chinese for Specific Purposes, Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL), AI, Language education
Abstract (Chinese)
本论文全面阐述了英国中文教育,尤其是专门用途中文的发展历程与制度背景，界定了其核心特征,并考察了英国不同教育阶段课程体系与项目设置。研究分析了推动专门用途中文扩展的关键因素, 包括不断增长的学生需求、支持性的政策环境以及不断进展的英中贸易关系, 同时也指出了制约其更广泛推广的若干挑战。论文进一步探讨了人工智能技术在专门用途中文的应用, 并提出AI在提升专业领域关联性、增强学习者参与度以及促进就业能力等方面具有积极的作用，有望在未来英国乃至更广泛范围内推动CSP进入一个具有变革性的全新阶段。
关键词：专门用途中文，内容与语言整合学习 (CLIL)，人工智能，语言教育
1 Introduction
Chinese language education in UK universities has undergone considerable transformation in recent decades. A notable trend is the shift from single-honours Chinese degrees toward joint-honours pathways, initially pairing Chinese with another language, and increasingly integrating it with non-language disciplines such as science, medicine, and engineering. Moreover, China's rise as the world’s second-largest economy has further fuelled demand for domain-specific Chinese courses, including Business Chinese, Legal Chinese, and Medical Chinese, etc. This shift has accelerated the growth of Chinese for Specific Purposes (CSP), which prepared students to communicate effectively in specialised professional contexts through linguistic, cultural, and pragmatic training.
Recently, with the intervention of AI, more apps are being used in language teaching, including Chinese for Specific Purposes. These AI tools offer new opportunities to personalise learning (Luria, 2025), enhance learner motivation (Shafiee Rad & Roohani, 2024), and provide immediate feedback (Lin, Zhao, & Zhou, 2025), and they can engage in human-like conversations with users by comprehending language input and generating meaningful responses (Thasni et al., 2026). However, despite its potential to revolutionise language education, the current knowledge of how generative AI is perceived and experienced by educators and learners in the context of Language for Specific Purposes (LSP) is still limited.
To optimise the effectiveness of AI integration in LSP, it is crucial to understand the current situation of Languages for Specific Purposes in general and Chinese for Specific Purposes in particular and explore students’ experiences and perspectives on the use of AI. Therefore, two research questions drive this study:
Research Question 1: What is the current state of Chinese for Specific Purposes in the UK?
Research Question 2: What are the benefits and limitations of AI integration in Chinese for Specific Purposes, and how do students perceive this intervention? |
2 Methodology
For Research Question 1, a document analysis approach was adopted, involving a review of university programmes, module descriptions, policy documents, and curricula. This was triangulated with email correspondence and online discussions with language tutors and programme coordinators to clarify how Chinese and Chinese for Specific Purposes are delivered across institutions.
For Research Question 2, a case study approach was employed, including an AI-supported classroom intervention, students’ reflective journals, and informal discussions with staff and students to capture their perceptions of learning gains with and without AI support.
2.1 Research Design
To develop a clear picture of the current state of CSP provision, we first examined the official websites of UK universities offering Chinese programmes. This was followed by email correspondence, online one-to-one meetings, and group discussions with colleagues at these institutions to clarify programme details.
For the case study, an AI intervention experiment was conducted over a twelve-week period. Students self-selected whether to use AI tools, resulting in an experimental group (EG), consisting of students who chose to use AI, and a control group (CG), comprising those who chose not to use AI. Both groups were required to write reflective journals documenting their experiences of using or not using AI.
The research design was underpinned by a qualitative interpretivist perspective, aiming to understand participants’ subjective experiences and reflections. Multiple sources of qualitative data were collected, including students’ reflective journals and informal discussions with both staff and students. The use of these different data sources enabled methodological triangulation and provided a richer understanding of participants’ perceptions of AI-assisted and non-AI-assisted learning experiences.
2.2 Participants
For the case study, all Chinese-major degree students at the University of Manchester with a higher level of Chinese proficiency participated in the study (n = 43). Using a quasi-experimental design, students self-selected whether to use AI tools, forming an experimental group (EG; n = 22) of AI users and a control group (CG; n = 21) of non-AI users. Baseline proficiency was evaluated for both groups prior to the intervention using their previous academic year's end-of-year Chinese language examination scores and HSK level assessments, establishing baseline equivalence across EG and CG.
43 students (n = 43) voluntarily participated in this study. All participants were students enrolled in Chinese language degree programmes at the University of Manchester and had an advanced level of Chinese proficiency, approximately equivalent to HSK 5. The participants comprised two groups. The first group consisted of final-year students taking Chinese 6. These students had studied Chinese at the University of Manchester during their first and second years, spent their third year studying Chinese in China as part of a residence-abroad programme, and returned to the UK for their final year of study. The second group consisted of advanced second-year students taking Chinese 5. These students had studied Chinese before entering university and therefore joined the programme with an established background in Chinese.
The participants were aged between 19 and 21 years, including 29 female and 14 male students. However, gender was deliberately not taken into consideration as an analytical variable in this study. They were enrolled in the Chinese Studies Program, and all participants were British or European nationals.
In the first week of the semester, all participants were introduced to the AI tools used in the study and informed thatNow I would like to have your opinion. NOrmally Chinese students also give themselves English nahms they could choose whether to use them or not. Because students self-selected their participation in AI-supported learning, a quasi-experimental design was adopted. The students who chose to use AI tools formed the experimental group (EG; n = 22), while the students who chose not to use AI tools formed the control group (CG; n = 21). Students in the EG used AI tools to refine their ideas, clarify their language, and revise their work based on AI-generated feedback. Students in the CG relied primarily on the course textbook and discussed their ideas and language with peers and the teacher rather than using AI tools.
Prior to the intervention, baseline Chinese proficiency for both groups was evaluated using students' end-of-year language examination scores from the preceding academic year. These measures were used to establish baseline equivalence between the EG and CG before the intervention.
To protect participants’ anonymity, pseudonyms were used throughout the paper. Specifically, Chinese surnames were assigned to participants in place of their real names when reporting their comments and quotations. These pseudonyms do not correspond to participants’ actual names or identities.
2.3 Data Collection and Analysis
Data were collected during the academic year of 2024-25. Students in both the EG and the CG wrote reflective journals on the perception of using or not using AI in their learning. The journals were examined as a unified dataset using reflexive thematic analysis, which involved familiarisation with the data, initial coding, generating preliminary themes, developing and reviewing themes, and subsequently refining, defining, and naming the final themes. Throughout the process, all data were read repeatedly and accompanied by reflexive notetaking to support a deeper understanding and interpretation of participants’ responses. Rigour and trustworthiness were enhanced through continuous researcher reflexivity, iterative theme refinement, and peer debriefing, ensuring that the analysis remained grounded in participants’ lived experiences while maintaining academic integrity.
2.4 Ethical Considerations
The University Ethics Committee was consulted prior to the study and advised that formal ethical approval was not required, as the data were derived from students’ reflective journals and informal discussions. Nevertheless, informed consent forms were distributed to all participants, and only students who voluntarily agreed to participate were included in the case study. Participants’ privacy and confidentiality were protected through the removal of identifying information and the use of participant codes in all data handling and reporting. No conflicts of interest were identified in relation to this study.
3 Chinese for Specific Purposes in the UK
Chinese language teaching in the UK has deep historical roots. In 1687, King James II welcomed the first recorded Chinese scholar, Michael Shen Fuzong, who collaborated with Thomas Hyde at the Bodleian Library to catalogue and translate its Chinese holdings (Timeless Travels, 2024). Later, Chinese sailors, labourers, and merchants arrived during the Industrial Revolution, and the first Chinatown emerged in London in the 18th century. By 1940, the first community-based Chinese school had been established. Since then, Chinese education has expanded from informal community initiatives to mainstream provision across primary, secondary, and tertiary education.
The UK’s longstanding cultural and economic ties with China, combined with its global role in international education, have generated rising demand for graduates who possess both Chinese language competence and sector-specific knowledge. Institutions across the UK have responded by introducing CSP programmes that align with learners’ professional aspirations and employers’ evolving needs.
3.1 Geographical Demands
CSP development across the UK is shaped by the nation's devolved educational systems and regional policy priorities. Across England, Scotland, Wales, and Northern Ireland, varying governance frameworks create distinct landscapes for language provision and CSP implementation (Ayres-Bennett & Forsdick, 2024a, 2024b):
England
Secondary schools in the Mandarin Excellence Programme receive £20,000 annually via the British Council, with some introducing Business Chinese options as general proficiency develops. Chinese now ranks among the most studied foreign languages in England, though overall uptake continues to lag behind European counterparts (British Council, 2024).
Scotland
Guided by the Curriculum for Excellence and its 1+2 Languages Policy, Scotland embeds early Chinese language pathways from primary school onward. At the tertiary level, institutions such as Edinburgh University, Glasgow University, Aberdeen University, and Dundee University deliver specialised degree options and electives combining Chinese with international business and intercultural communication.
Wales
Through the Global Futures Programme, Wales promotes international language competencies, with institutions like Cardiff University and the University of Wales Trinity Saint David integrating Chinese language study with business, culture, and international engagement.
Northern Ireland
The Languages Connect Strategy (2017–2026) supports Chinese education, highlighted by its 2020 formal recognition in the Leaving Certificate examination. Primary and secondary schools increasingly introduce Chinese to enhance linguistic diversity and support regional economic networks.
3.2 Policies of Chinese for Specific Purposes in the UK
3.2.1 Business Chinese
The prominence of Business Chinese is closely linked to the UK’s strong and evolving economic relationship with China. In 2025, total bilateral trade in goods and services reached £98.4 billion (Department for Business & Trade, 2025), underscoring the need for graduates who can operate linguistically and culturally within Sino-British commercial environments. Demand is further reinforced by the substantial presence of Chinese students in UK higher education: in 2023, 33,195 Chinese undergraduate applicants were recorded, accounting for one in four international UCAS acceptances (UCAS, 2025). Their contribution to the UK economy, estimated at £5.4 billion annually in tuition fees and living expenses (The PIE, 2025) has cemented Chinese language education as both an economic and strategic priority for UK universities.
Against this backdrop, Chinese is increasingly recognised as a key language for global competitiveness. National employer surveys indicate that 75% of UK employers believe graduates with Chinese language skills hold a clear advantage in the job market (The PIE, 2025). This perception aligns with broader labour market trends highlighting the growing need for bilingual professionals in sectors such as international trade, e-commerce, finance, logistics, and digital marketing. As a result, Business Chinese has emerged not simply as a language-learning pathway, but as a crucial component of employability strategies within UK higher education.
In the UK, demand for Chinese-speaking professionals has grown substantially across a range of sectors. Job advertisements for positions such as E-commerce Executive, Digital Marketing Specialist, and Business Development Manager frequently list Chinese language proficiency as a desirable, or essential, qualification, indicating a rising preference for bilingual or multilingual candidates (Department for Business & Trade, 2025). Data from December 2024 further illustrate this trend: 92% of companies conducting international business were willing to offer salary premiums for Chinese language skills; 55% of global roles in the tech sector preferred Chinese speakers; 45% of new e-commerce positions required Chinese proficiency; and 60% of digital marketing roles offered explicit language bonuses (Linguacentric, 2025). These figures underscore both the economic value of Chinese language competence and the strategic relevance of Chinese for Specific Purposes within the UK labour market.
In parallel with labour market demands, universities across the UK have broadened their provision of Chinese language education via single-honours degrees, joint-honours programs, open electives, and professional short courses. This diversification reflects the maturation of Chinese for Specific Purposes as a distinct and dynamic field, now encompassing a wide range of sub-specialisations, including (but not limited to) Business Chinese, Political Chinese, Medical Chinese, Tourism Chinese, Sport Chinese, Dance Chinese, and Chinese for Science and Technology. These domains highlight both the flexibility of CSP curricula and the increasing recognition, within universities, industry, and public institutions, of the importance of field-specific linguistic and cultural competence:
Universities | Specialities | Characteristics |
SOAS | BC | Business applications in China |
University of Leeds | BC | Based in Institute of Arab and Islamic Studies |
University of Manchester | BC | Based in Chinese Studies |
University of Edinburgh | BC | Based in Chinese Studies |
Lancaster University | Intercultural Business Communication with Chinese | Modern languages and translation programs |
University of Westminster | Chinese Medicine, Acupuncture, MSc Chinese Herbal Medicine, PG Diploma in Herbal Medicine | Interdisciplinary programs |
Durham University | Chinese Law and Policy | Based in Centre for Chinese Law and Policy |
University of Warwick | Chinese + Business, Tourism, International relations | Based in Language Centre |
University of Birmingham | BC | Interdisciplinary programs |
University of Oxford | Chinese + Business, International relations | MPhil in Chinese |
University of Sussex | Law with Chinese | Based in Law Department |
Chester University | Chinese for sports | Based in Chinese Studies |
Table 1: Selected Degree or Specialist Programmes in Chinese for Specific Purposes in the UK
The School of Oriental and African Studies (SOAS), University of London, was a pioneer in establishing Business Chinese (BC) education in the UK. Its curriculum integrates advanced language training with international business practice, preparing graduates for careers in tourism, trade, diplomacy, and international development. The University of Leeds hosts the UK’s first Confucius Institute for Business, which plays a significant role in strengthening student–industry engagement and facilitating bilateral trade collaboration through internships, company projects, and executive training activities. At Lancaster University, an annual Business Forum provides a platform for direct interaction between students and corporate partners, enabling learners to apply BC in authentic professional contexts. Meanwhile, the University of Oxford’s MPhil with Chinese combines politics, economics, and contemporary society with Chinese, offering a multidisciplinary approach that equips graduates with both analytical and operational competencies relevant to global business and policy environments.
3.2.2 Chinese for Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM)
Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM) constitutes a significant and rapidly developing domain within Chinese for Specific Purposes, particularly in relation to interdisciplinary education, healthcare training, and the growing public interest in complementary medicine. Among UK institutions, the University of Westminster stands out for its comprehensive integration of TCM into higher education curricula. It offered a full suite of professionally accredited programmes, including a BSc (Hons) in Chinese Medicine: Acupuncture, an MSc in Chinese Herbal Medicine, and a Postgraduate Diploma in Herbal Medicine (University of Westminster, 2018a; University of Westminster, 2018b). These programmes provide extensive training in classical and contemporary TCM theories, diagnostic and therapeutic techniques, herbal pharmacology, and hands-on clinical practice, preparing graduates for both clinical practice and research-oriented career pathways.
From a community-facing and practice-based perspective, the Confucius Institute (CI) at London South Bank University (LSBU) plays a distinctive national role. As the only CI in the UK specialising exclusively in TCM and wellbeing, it complements university teaching through professional consultations, treatments, and a wide range of public outreach activities (London South Bank University, 2015; London South Bank University, 2026). Its clinical services, including acupuncture, therapeutic massage, moxibustion, cupping therapy, hot stone treatment, and electro-acupuncture, are delivered in a dedicated environment designed to support both therapeutic practice and learner observation. These activities not only enhance student training and experiential learning but also promote broader public engagement with TCM within the UK’s multicultural health landscape.
3.2.3 Legal Chinese
A growing number of UK universities offer programmes that integrate legal studies with Chinese language and culture, reflecting increasing demand for legal professionals who possess both linguistic competence and cross-jurisdictional legal literacy. These programmes, delivered through joint-honours degrees, specialist modules, and international collaborations, respond to China’s expanding global economic and legal influence and the need for graduates capable of navigating complex transnational legal environments.
SOAS offers a BA (Hons) in East Asian Studies and Law, enabling students to specialise in both Chinese language and legal studies within a multidisciplinary framework. The University of Liverpool delivers an LLB (Hons) in Law with Chinese, providing students with a solid grounding in legal principles alongside progressive language and cultural training. Similarly, the University of Sheffield offers an LLB (Hons) in Law (with Chinese), which incorporates modules on Chinese legal systems within a comprehensive legal curriculum.
At King’s College London, the Bachelor of Laws (LLB) in English Law and Hong Kong Law introduces students to two major legal jurisdictions and prepares them for careers in transnational or comparative legal practice. The University of Edinburgh provides a suite of courses focused on East Asian and comparative law, offering students opportunities to engage with Chinese legal concepts within a broader regional and theoretical context.
A particularly notable initiative is the dual Bachelor of Laws (LLB) and Juris Doctor (JD) program jointly delivered by the University of Exeter and the Chinese University of Hong Kong (CUHK). This program enables students to qualify in both the English and Hong Kong legal systems, offering rigorous training in comparative legal frameworks and significantly enhancing graduates’ cross-cultural legal literacy. CUHK, ranked among Asia’s top three law schools (Academic Ranking of World Universities [ARWU], 2020), brings considerable expertise to this collaboration.
Across these programmes, students typically combine the study of law with modules on Chinese language, history, society, and legal culture. This interdisciplinary structure ensures that graduates are well equipped to engage with legal issues in Chinese-speaking jurisdictions and to operate effectively within international legal environments where cultural and linguistic sensitivity is essential.
3.2.4 Interdisciplinary and Joint-degree Programs
A significant number of UK universities offer interdisciplinary and joint-degree programs that combine Chinese language study with training in professional or disciplinary fields:
Universities | Specialities | Characteristics |
University of Sheffield | Chinese + business, law, international relations | Based in School of East Asian Studies |
University of Exeter | Chinese + business, diplomacy | Based in Institute of Arab and Islamic Studies |
Durham University | Chinese + business, law, international relations | Based in Chinese Studies |
University of Portsmouth | Chinese + business, tourism | Interdisciplinary programs |
University of Bath | Chinese + business, law, or international development | Modern languages and translation programs |
Cardiff University | Chinese + business, displomacy, international relations | Based in Chinese Studies |
University of Leicester | Chinese + business, tourism, international relations | Interdisciplinary programs |
University of Hull | Chinese + business, tourism, law | Interdisciplinary programs |
University of Bristol | Chinese + business, international relations | Interdisciplinary programs |
University of Warwick | Chinese + Business | Based in Language Centre |
Table 2: Selected Joint-Degree or Interdisciplinary Programs
Such interdisciplinary degrees integrate Chinese language learning with subjects. This structure enables students to acquire a holistic skillset: advanced linguistic competence, cultural literacy, and substantive disciplinary expertise. The pedagogical design of these programs incorporates case-based learning, applied research projects, and intercultural communication training, helping students connect language study with real-world professional practice. By linking Chinese language with specialised domains, these joint-degree pathways enhance graduates’ competitiveness in the labour market and meet the increasing demand for professionals capable of engaging with China across economic, political, and cultural spheres. As such, interdisciplinary and joint-degree programs represent an important and expanding dimension of CSP provision within UK higher education.
4 Case Study: AI Integration in Business Chinese
4.1 Context and Analytical Framework
The present case study examined how students enrolled in a BC module at the University of Manchester integrated generative AI tools into project-based language learning tasks. Data were drawn from student reflective journals, project artefacts (e.g., presentations, videos, app concepts), AI-generated outputs, and classroom observations. A thematic analysis approach was adopted to identify recurring patterns and themes in students’ experiences of AI-assisted learning.
Within the context of CSP learning, conversational models and reasoning models become prominent: Conversational models, such as ChatGPT, simulated natural dialogue, interpreted contextual cues, and generated human-like responses, which are effective for open-ended tasks, including brainstorming, content drafting, and presentation planning; while reasoning models, such as DeepSeek, prioritised logical consistency and structured problem-solving.
Each AI tool offered distinct pedagogical affordances for CSP learners. DeepSeek was used more for China-related research and data analysis due to its strength in generating precise and analytically coherent output. ChatGPT, by comparison, excelled in ideation, iterative refinement, and multimodal project planning. Tools such as Wordtune supported linguistic enhancement, improving tone, clarity, and fluency in both written and spoken communication. Google Slides enabled collaborative visual content creation through the integration of AI-generated text and multimedia. Microsoft Clipchamp provided accessible video editing with AI-assisted voiceovers, transitions, and subtitles, while VoiceMaker generated text-to-speech output that was tailored to multilingual or multicultural contexts.
Students of Chinese for Specific Purposes often combined several of these tools within a single workflow. A typical process involved using DeepSeek to assemble domain-specific data, ChatGPT to draft the structure and main content, Wordtune to refine linguistic quality, Google Slides for visual design, VoiceMaker to produce narration, and Clipchamp to edit the final video product, which was then shared via platforms such as Google Drive, PowerPoint, or YouTube. Such multi-tool integration illustrated the growing complexity of AI-supported learning environments and the increasingly multimodal nature of CSP coursework.
4.2 Course Design and AI integration
As part of the BC module, students simulated the launch of a business (real or fictional), and navigated key stages of commercial activity, including market research, advertising, distribution and sales channels, after-sales service, and sustainable development. This scaffolded project provided a structured context for learners to apply BC in realistic, professionalised scenarios. To further support innovative and reflective learning, students were encouraged to incorporate AI tools into their project workflow.
Week | Content |
1 | Setting up your own company |
2 | Market survey |
3 | Advertisement |
4 | Sale channels, target customers |
5 | Business negotiation |
6 | After-sale service |
7 | CV, cover letter, interview |
8 | E-commerce |
9 | Multicultural management |
10 | Sustainable development |
Table 3: Business Chinese Curriculum Overview
This design enabled the researchers to analyse not only the functional use of AI within CSP tasks, but also learners’ perceptions of AI’s pedagogical affordances and limitations within a domain-specific language learning environment.
4.3 Results of the Case Study
Through iterative coding and analysis, three main themes emerged from the data: (1) the pedagogical affordances of generative AI; (2) the limitations and risks associated with AI integration; and (3) student strategies for responsible AI usage. These themes form the analytical structure for the findings presented below.
4.3.1 Theme 1: Pedagogical affordances of generative AI
In this course, students learned business concepts and identified potential market niches to develop their own simulated enterprises. The experimental group (EG) perceived generative AI as a transformative tool that provided multi-layered scaffolding, ranging from initial ideation and market research to complex content organisation and domain-specific vocabulary expansion.
From a pedagogical perspective, AI acted as an initial cognitive unblocker during the early phases of project development. Students reported that generating preliminary outlines and survey frameworks in AI reduced the affective filter and anxiety associated with high-level professional writing in a target language. This allowed learners to transition more rapidly from conceptualisation to active language production.
For example, a student Qian used DeepSeek to investigate Chinese consumer preferences regarding different types of fitness centres. The AI tool assisted him in formulating, refining, and sequencing survey questions, which he subsequently distributed through social media platforms. After collecting the responses, he employed DeepSeek to conduct preliminary data analysis and generate visualisations highlighting consumer trends and behavioural patterns. He then designed a prototype mobile application offering personalised gym recommendations, venue reviews, and customised fitness plans tailored to user preferences. Reflecting on the process, he observed:
AI helped me analyse large amounts of data more efficiently, identify consumer trends and behavioural patterns. By using DeepSeek for preliminary analysis and visualisation, I was able to move more quickly from raw data to evidence-based decisions about app features, including personalised gym recommendations, venue reviews, and customised fitness plans.
For example, Student Wen utilised DeepSeek to investigate Chinese consumer preferences regarding fitness platforms. AI assisted in formulating survey items, analysing trends, and generating visual data, leading to a mobile app prototype offering personalised gym recommendations. Reflecting on the process, the student noted:
Research became a lot easier with this AI tool, especially for data analysis and structuring consumer feedback.
Another student, Ding, developing the healthy-meal platform PinFeast, leveraged ChatGPT to draft logical presentation outlines and promotional copy, significantly reducing the cognitive load of structural planning in a second language.
Furthermore, a qualitative analysis of the reflective journals demonstrated that generative AI functioned as an interactive linguistic mentor rather than merely as a conventional translation or dictionary tool. Students reported that AI helped them identify subtle differences in meaning, register, collocation, and grammatical appropriateness in Business Chinese. For example, Student Yu reflected on the use of 刚开始 (‘at the beginning’) AI pointed it out that 刚 and 开始 were semantically overlapping and that 刚 was relatively colloquial in this context. Yu accepted AI’s suggestion and used 开始. Student Wang used 我亲自 (‘I personally’), and AI pointed it out that it was less appropriate than 我自己 (‘myself’) in the given context. In a questionnaire survey, Student Xin asked 你多大了 (‘How old are you?’), AI suggested that it should be replaced by the more appropriate formal expression 您的年龄 (‘your age’). Similarly, AI identified problems with collocation in Student Zhang’s writing, observing that 一边保持隐私，一边保证真实性 (‘while maintaining privacy, while ensuring authenticity’) should be revised to 保持隐私，保证真实性 (‘maintain privacy and ensure authenticity’), and recognised the need for more natural word order by changing 你一年几次出国旅行 (‘How many times do you travel abroad in a year?’) to the more appropriate 您一年出国旅行几次 (‘How many times do you travel abroad a year?’). Student Zhao also noted that AI spotted 再加上 (‘in addition’) was too colloquial for the intended context.
These reflections suggest that students were using generative AI not simply to obtain lexical equivalents, but to evaluate and refine their language choices according to meaning, register, collocation, syntax, and communicative context. In this sense, generative AI operated as an interactive linguistic mentor that provided contextualised lexical alternatives, professional expressions, and register adaptations particularly relevant to the development of Business Chinese.
Students also reported that prompt refinement forced them to process language deeply, turning passive vocabulary check-ups into an active, evaluative learning cycle. This iterative engagement highlights a key pedagogical implication: prompt engineering can serve as an authentic form of communicative output practice, requiring precise lexical choices and pragmatic awareness.
Students’ accounts revealed that 98% of students from EG commented that generative AI effectively supported multiple dimensions of CSP learning. These students emphasised that AI tools helped them brainstorm from scratch, identify relevant concepts, and organise information into coherent sequences. These affordances not only supported their coursework but also contributed to the development of transferable skills, including written and oral presentation strategies. As Student Li explained:
I used ChatGPT to help me design, name and develop my company. I knew I wanted to focus on fashion, and ChatGPT suggested exploring sustainability and second-hand clothing. Based on this, I developed an environmentally friendly online clothing business. I also used ChatGPT to design market surveys, branding, and sales channels. Brilliant, it is a perfect partner.
Another significant benefit concerned the expansion of vocabulary and idiomatic expression. Students reported that AI tools exposed them to a broader range of lexis, particularly vocabulary associated with professional and business contexts, accompanied by contextualised examples. This made new vocabulary more meaningful and easier to apply in authentic communicative situations. As Student Wang put it:
Generally, I use Pleco checking new words, but ChatGPT provides a list of possible words for further exploration. In this way, I found this invaluable for expanding my vocabulary. For the topic of meeting the needs of customers from different nationalities, I learned 25 new words and expressions.
46% of the students from the EG highlighted that the iterative nature of AI interaction strengthened their critical thinking skills. Refining prompts and evaluating the accuracy and appropriateness of AI-generated output required reflection, comparison, and decision-making, thereby deepening their understanding of both language use and subject content.
These results reveal the pedagogical potential of AI for domain-specific language tasks, which were significant in project-based CSP activities that required both linguistic production and business content knowledge.
4.3.2 Theme 2: Limitations and Risks of AI Integration
Despite these advantages, participants encountered critical limitations. A primary concern was AI’s lack of cultural and pragmatic nuance. In one instance, Student Zhou attempted to market white scented candles to Chinese consumers – unaware that white candles are strongly associated with funerary traditions – a cultural faux pas that the AI failed to identify or correct. This highlighted a fundamental gap in generative AI’s ability to navigate implicit, culturally embedded symbolism in professional communication, emphasising the irreplaceable necessity of instructor-led intercultural mediation.
Additionally, students noted that AI-generated prose frequently suffered from formulaic structures, overly rigid formality, or mechanical tone, creating uncertainty regarding communicative appropriateness. Control group participants particularly expressed apprehension over the erosion of personal voice, originality, and critical agency, noting that uncritical reliance on AI could result in homogenised, impersonal outputs that failed to reflect genuine professional competence or authentic human connection.
Student Wu emphasised the importance of balancing AI assistance with personal input, observing that
Although AI can provide a framework and suggest content, the essay’s depth and authenticity came from my personal reflections and real-life experiences. Talking, eating soup dumplings, and spending time with my parents added a personal touch that AI could not replicate.
Similarly, Student Chen argued that
Often AI generated texts and ideas lack nuance, overly generalised, and lack a strong sense of argument. For writing essays these details are important. Students' work can become too similar, lacking variation and creativity, oftentimes it is obvious when AI has been used in place of originality. I believe AI restricts students and does not help them to think for themselves, and overall, we should not rely on it.
These reflections suggest that students were not only concerned with the linguistic quality of AI-generated output but also with its implications for authorship, originality, critical thinking, and authentic communication. Uncritical reliance on AI, therefore, was perceived as potentially producing homogenised and impersonal outputs that might fail to reflect students’ individual experiences and genuine professional competence. These findings indicated that AI integration requires clear guidelines on maintaining student agency and developing critical digital literacy.
Some students also expressed uncertainty about how to evaluate and select among multiple AI-generated suggestions. As Student Chu wrote:
Some AI suggestions were either too difficult to understand, messy, or did not match what I really wanted to express. Since it gave many useful answers, I did not know which one was most suitable.
Students also observed that although AI-generated responses were generally grammatically accurate and coherent, they frequently lacked the variation, subtlety, and naturalness characteristic of authentic human communication. Consequently, some presentations risked sounding repetitive or impersonal.
Concerns regarding the loss of personal voice and authenticity mainly came from the control group, as Student Yang reflected:
AI was a valuable tool, but I still found it important to include my own ideas and judgement to make the final work sound natural, clear, and personal.
Several students felt that excessive reliance on AI tools could result in depersonalised work lacking individuality, emotional resonance, and critical engagement. As Student Du commented:
AI tools can be helpful for language polishing and brainstorming, but independent thinking and personal research are essential for maintaining originality, relevance, and depth, ensuring that my voice remains the most important aspect of my output.
These reflections raised broader questions regarding how educators can balance the advantages of generative AI with the need to preserve student agency, creativity, and identity in language production, issues that are central to the responsible integration of AI into CSP pedagogy.
Rather than accepting suggestions without evaluation, some students exercised critical judgment by adapting and refining AI responses to better align with their own intentions and stylistic preferences. As Student Fang remarked:
Some AI generated sentences were too long or overly formal, so I used my critical thinking skills to adjust to better match my own style.
Several participants in the control group expressed anxiety about academic integrity, including the difficulty of detecting and preventing plagiarism. They recognised that the sophistication of AI tools could blur the boundaries between legitimate assistance and academic misconduct. Student Gao stated:
Although AI is very helpful, I tend to avoid using it to avoid plagiarism and only use it for ideas.
A further limitation of ChatGPT was its inefficiency in generating images that adequately corresponded to the content. Student Ma noted:
The structure and logic were good, but the slides lacked visuals, such as logos or images. The presentation felt less engaging, so I had to add these manually.
This is illustrated by the contrast of Figure 1 and Figure 2 below:
Figure 1: ChatGPT generated PPT structure (extract)
Figure 2: The student’s final PPT (manually revised)
Overall, these findings show that while generative AI can boost linguistic productivity and assist with task execution, it still struggles to capture culturally situated meanings, pragmatic nuances, and authentic professional communication. However, given the rapid pace of generative AI development, these limitations reflect the capabilities of the technologies examined at the time of the study rather than fixed or permanent constraints. Continued advances in AI models may already have addressed some of these limitations or could further reduce them in the near future.
4.3.3 Theme 3: Student Strategies for Responsible and Effective AI Use
Reflecting on both the benefits and limitations of AI-assisted learning, students offered several constructive suggestions that highlighted the need for pedagogical approaches to balance the affordances of generative AI with human-centred, culturally informed Chinese for Specific Purposes.
To mitigate these risks, students adopted active, highly reflective strategies for responsible AI use rather than accepting generated content passively. The journal entries revealed a strong emphasis on critical evaluation, cross-verification, and blended learning workflows.
Learners frequently combined specialised applications – such as using Pleco for accurate baseline translations, DeepSeek for logical structuring and regional market data, and ChatGPT or Wordtune for stylistic refinement. Crucially, students emphasised that AI should act as a supplement to, rather than a replacement for, human instruction. Combining AI’s analytical efficiency with lecturer feedback, peer collaboration, and classroom discussions enabled students to refine content, verify factual accuracy, and preserve their personal voice while adhering to academic integrity standards. Pedagogically, this pointed toward a hybrid workflow model where AI handled technical scaffolding, freeing instructional time for high-level critical reflection and cross-cultural discussion.
Students also recognised the value of combining AI-based support with human expertise, rather than relying exclusively on either source. For example, Student Zhang highlighted the complementary strengths of AI and lecturers:
AI uses statistics to guess the answers, while lecturers understand what you need, so the combination of both maximise the intelligence and level of accuracy.
Students suggested that integrating AI with human-centred classroom interaction would create richer and more culturally grounded learning experiences. While AI tools support idea generation and linguistic scaffolding, culturally embedded instruction, including discussion, role-play, teacher feedback, and peer collaboration, remains essential for developing the pragmatic and intercultural competencies required in CSP contexts.
Another recommendation was that educators should play a proactive role in guiding students to evaluate AI-generated outputs, identify inaccuracies, and reflect on ethical considerations such as authorship, transparency, and academic integrity. Students emphasised the importance of maintaining a balance between automation and authentic self-expression, ensuring that their personal voice remained central to their work. Student Ning illustrated:
There were times when ChatGPT made mistakes, and I had to point them out with different prompts. I used different platforms for the most appropriate and correct information.
Students also highlighted the value of combining the strengths of multiple AI tools rather than relying exclusively on a single platform, as Student Ou described:
My initial process was translating the word via Pleco and then using DeepSeek to break down its meaning with sentence examples to reinforce my understanding.
Rather than using AI passively, 47% of the students suggested comparing outputs across platforms, identifying inaccuracies, and selectively adapting generated content to suit their communicative purposes, as integrating multiple AI tools produced a better effect by enabling cross-verification and ensuring that outputs were both linguistically reliable and contextually appropriate. This suggested that effective AI integration in CSP required not only technical access to AI tools but also pedagogical support for evaluative, reflective, and ethically informed practices.
These suggestions demonstrated that generative AI can meaningfully support CSP learning by facilitating idea generation, linguistic experimentation, and multimodal project development. Effective integration therefore depends on pedagogical models that combine AI-supported learning with critical reflection, intercultural awareness, and human-centred instruction.
5 Discussion
5.1 The Current State of Chinese for Specific Purposes Provision in the UK
To answer Research Question 1, referring to the current state of CSP provision in the UK, the findings indicate that in the UK, it has evolved from a relatively niche area within Chinese language education into a rapidly expanding and increasingly diversified field shaped by globalisation, labour market demands, and changing higher education priorities. Across England, Scotland, Wales, and Northern Ireland, Chinese language education is supported through different policy frameworks and institutional structures, resulting in varied but steadily growing opportunities for CSP development. The overall trajectory suggests a gradual shift from general Chinese language instruction toward professionally oriented and interdisciplinary models of learning.
One of the clear findings is the growing alignment between CSP curricula and employability agendas within UK higher education. Universities increasingly position Chinese not only as a cultural or academic subject, but also as a strategic professional skill linked to international business, diplomacy, law, healthcare, tourism, and intercultural communication. The expansion of specialised programmes such as BC, Chinese for Law, and Chinese for Traditional Chinese Medicine reflects a broader trend toward integrating language learning with disciplinary and vocational expertise. This development corresponds closely to labour market evidence demonstrating increased demand for graduates who possess both Chinese language proficiency and sector-specific competencies.
The findings also demonstrate that BC currently represents the most established and institutionally visible form of Chinese for Specific Purposes in the UK. This prominence appears closely connected to the strengthening economic relationship between the UK and China, the internationalisation strategies of UK universities, and employer demand for bilingual professionals capable of operating in Sino-British commercial contexts. Institutions such as SOAS, the University of Leeds, and the University of Manchester have developed practice-oriented curricula that combine linguistic training with applied professional tasks, including negotiation, market analysis, intercultural communication, and business simulations. These programmes illustrate how CSP pedagogy increasingly emphasises authentic, task-based learning designed to prepare students for real-world professional engagement.
The findings also suggest that Chinese for Specific Purposes in the UK remains characterised by considerable interdisciplinarity and institutional diversity. Rather than existing as a single unified model, CSP provision spans multiple domains and organisational structures, including joint-honours degrees, specialist centres, language electives, and interdisciplinary collaborations. This flexibility has enabled universities to adapt CSP provision to local institutional strengths and emerging societal needs. Examples include Chinese for sports, law, medicine, diplomacy, tourism, and international relations, highlighting the expanding scope of professionally oriented Chinese language education. These findings align with previous research on the connection between language development and workplace environments (Chen et al., 2026).
Despite growing demand, the findings also reveal that Chinese remains less widely studied, and regional disparities in policy implementation, funding, and curriculum provision create uneven access to Chinese language education across the UK. The findings therefore suggest that while Chinese for Specific Purposes is gaining strategic importance, its long-term sustainability will depend on continued institutional investment, curriculum innovation, and stronger integration between classroom teaching with AI implementation.
5.2 Benefits, Limitations, and Student Perceptions of AI integration in Chinese for Specific Purposes
To answer Research Question 2 about the benefits and limitations of AI integration in Chinese for Specific Purposes in the UK and students’ perception of this intervention, the findings suggest that generative AI has significant potential to support CSP learning in UK higher education, particularly within project-based and professionally oriented learning environments. Students generally perceived AI tools positively, viewing them as valuable forms of linguistic, organisational, and cognitive support. Meanwhile, they demonstrated a strong awareness of the limitations, risks, and ethical concerns, indicating that their engagement with AI was both pragmatic and reflective.
One of the most significant benefits identified was AI’s capacity to facilitate idea generation, organisational planning, and language scaffolding. Students frequently used tools such as ChatGPT and DeepSeek to brainstorm business concepts, structure presentations, refine project logic, and generate professional vocabulary relevant to commercial and intercultural contexts. These affordances were particularly valuable in CSP settings, where learners are required not only to communicate accurately in Chinese, but also to perform domain-specific tasks such as market research, negotiation, advertising, and professional presentation. The findings therefore suggest that AI can enhance students’ ability to engage with authentic workplace-oriented tasks by reducing cognitive load and supporting the development of professional communicative competence. This finding is consistent with Xi & Xue’s (2026) finding that AI positively supports students’ personal goals and engagement.
Another major advantage concerned language refinement. Students reported that AI tools exposed them to a broader range of business-related vocabulary, alternative sentence structures, and more advanced linguistic expressions than traditional dictionary-based tools alone. Many students compared AI suggestions, refined prompts, and selectively adapted AI-generated content to fit their intended meaning and personal style. This indicates that AI-supported learning may also encourage forms of reflective and iterative language practice that strengthen learners’ critical engagement with language production. This is in line with Qi et al. (2026), who stress learners’ agency and autonomy.
Despite these benefits, the study also identified several important limitations. One of these limitations related to cultural and contextual inaccuracy. Students observed that AI-generated content often lacked sensitivity to implicit cultural meanings, pragmatic appropriateness, and socially embedded communication norms. The aforementioned, inappropriate marketing of white candles in a Chinese cultural context demonstrated that AI systems may generate linguistically accurate but culturally problematic content. This limitation is particularly important in Chinese for Specific Purposes, where effective communication depends heavily on contextual awareness, as pointed out by Younas & Zeng (2026) stipulating that AI systems be designed to engage with cultural plurality and fluidity as central features.
The present study also discovered that AI-generated language could appear formulaic, overly formal, repetitive, or detached from authentic human expression. Overreliance on AI-generated content risked reducing originality, individuality, and emotional authenticity. Consequently, the importance of maintaining personal voice, independent judgement, and human creativity was emphasised.
The issue of potential risks of plagiarism, overdependence, fabricated information, and reduced critical engagement also emerged, when AI tools were used uncritically. Many students developed strategies of cross-verification, such as comparing outputs across multiple platforms, checking vocabulary through specialist dictionaries, and revising AI-generated material manually. These practices suggest that students actively evaluated the reliability, appropriateness, and ethical implications of AI-generated content. This practice supported previous research which emphasized the importance of recognising and addressing various concerns with AI use (Xu et al., 2026).
The findings, then, indicate that AI’s limitations in cultural interpretation, pragmatic nuance, and authentic expression highlight the continuing importance of teacher guidance, intercultural pedagogy, and critical digital literacy. Effective AI integration in Chinese for Specific Purposes therefore depends on balanced pedagogical approaches that combine technological innovation with reflective, human-centred, and culturally informed language education.
5.3 AI Integration in Chinese for Specific Purposes: Emerging Pedagogical Trends
The findings from this study suggest that generative AI is increasingly functioning as a form of linguistic, organisational, and cognitive scaffolding within CSP learning environments. Students used AI tools not only to generate Chinese-language content, but also to brainstorm business ideas, structure presentations, refine professional communication, analyse data, and support multimodal project development. These practices reflect broader trends that highlight the capacity of AI-driven tools to facilitate learning experiences (Coanca, 2023), to generate human-like communicative output (Khojasteh et al., 2025), and to support interactive language practice through simulated dialogue and task-based communication (Gonçalves et al., 2025). Within CSP contexts specifically, such integration appear particularly valuable because they support the application of language within professionally situated and purpose-oriented scenarios, a central objective of CSP pedagogy (Dai et al., 2025).
Conversational and reasoning-based AI models can be used iteratively, refining prompts, evaluating outputs, and selectively adapting generated content to fit specific communicative goals. Active engagement in negotiating meaning, checking accuracy, and tailoring language use to professional and intercultural contexts are recommended. These suggestions align with recent scholarship emphasising the role of AI-enhanced instructional environments in supporting learner-centred and task-based pedagogies (Siddique, 2025; Lo, 2025). In this sense, AI appears to support not only linguistic development, but also broader forms of critical digital literacy and professional communication competence.
Another important trend is the growing role of multimodal and simulation-based learning in CSP education. AI-supported workflows enable learners to rehearse workplace communication tasks such as market research, branding, negotiation, and customer interaction in relatively low-pressure environments. Previous studies similarly suggest that AI applications can create immersive and scenario-based opportunities for professional communication practice (Aminovna, 2025; Raksachart et al., 2025). These practices are particularly relevant in Chinese for Specific Purposes, where authentic, contextualised, and professionally situated communication forms a key component of learning outcomes.
As AI technologies continue to evolve and become increasingly multimodal, adaptive, and contextually responsive, their role within CSP education is likely to expand further. The findings from this study suggest that the future value of AI in Chinese for Specific Purposes will depend less on automation itself and more on how effectively educators integrate these technologies into pedagogically meaningful, ethically informed, and culturally sensitive learning environments. In this sense, AI should be understood not as a replacement for human expertise, but as a potentially valuable pedagogical tool that can support the development of professionally oriented, multilingual, and interculturally competent language users within UK higher education and beyond.
6 Conclusion
This study demonstrates that the expansion of Chinese for Specific Purposes in the UK is driven by strong student interest, an increasing institutional focus on graduate employability, and ongoing cultural and economic ties between the UK and China. As CSP becomes a key component of interdisciplinary and profession-oriented higher education, achieving long-term impact will require more coordinated national strategies, including sustained funding, clearer progression pathways, and targeted investment in curriculum design. Integrating generative AI into CSP offers clear pedagogical benefits, helping students structure professional content and reflect more critically on their language choices. When used as a tool for inquiry, refinement, and comparison, AI serves as an effective scaffold for domain-specific learning rather than a replacement for human judgment. Ultimately, the findings emphasize the need for a balanced, critically informed approach to AI integration in language education.
Future development of CSP education in the UK should not be driven by technological adoption alone, but by thoughtful pedagogical integration that aligns AI affordances with disciplinary goals, intercultural learning, and professional relevance. In doing so, CSP programmes can remain responsive to global labour market demands while also ensuring that learners develop the linguistic, cultural, and critical competencies required for effective communication.
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Authors:
Professor Minjie Xing
Chair of Chinese Studies
School of Arts, Languages and Cultures
University of Manchester
United Kingdom
Email: Minjie.xing@manchester.ac.uk
ORCID-ID: 0000-0002-8600-5405
Dr Amily W Guenier
Lecturer in Chinese Studies
School of Arts, Languages and Cultures
University of Manchester
United Kingdom
ORCID-ID: 0000-0001-5583-9442
Email: a.guenier@manchester.ac.uk